SARS-CoV-2 infection impairs NK cell functions via activation of the LLT1-CD161 axis.

Introduction: Natural killer (NK) cells plays a pivotal role in the control of viral infections, and their function depend on the balance between their activating and inhibitory receptors. The immune dysregulation observed in COVID-19 patients was previously associated with downregulation of NK cell numbers and function, yet the mechanism of inhibition of NK cell functions and the interplay between infected cells and NK cells remain largely unknown. Methods: In this study we show that SARS-CoV-2 infection of airway epithelial cells can directly influence NK cell phenotype and functions in the infection microenvironment. NK cells were co-cultured with SARS-CoV-2 infected epithelial cells, in a direct contact with A549ACE2/TMPRSS2 cell line or in a microenvironment of the infection in a 3D ex vivo human airway epithelium (HAE) model and NK cell surface expression of a set of most important receptors (CD16, NKG2D, NKp46, DNAM-1, NKG2C, CD161, NKG2A, TIM-3, TIGIT, and PD-1) was analyzed. Results: We observed a selective, in both utilized experimental models, significant downregulation the proportion of CD161 (NKR-P1A or KLRB1) expressing NK cells, and its expression level, which was followed by a significant impairment of NK cells cytotoxicity level against K562 cells. What is more, we confirmed that SARS-CoV-2 infection upregulates the expression of the ligand for CD161 receptor, lectin-like transcript 1 (LLT1, CLEC2D or OCIL), on infected epithelial cells. LLT1 protein can be also detected not only in supernatants of SARS-CoV-2 infected A549ACE2/TMPRSS2 cells and HAE basolateral medium, but also in serum of COVID-19 patients. Finally, we proved that soluble LLT1 protein treatment of NK cells significantly reduces i) the proportion of CD161+ NK cells, ii) the ability of NK cells to control SARS-CoV-2 infection in A549ACE2/TMPRSS2 cells and iii) the production of granzyme B by NK cells and their cytotoxicity capacity, yet not degranulation level. Conclusion: We propose a novel mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 inhibition of NK cell functions via activation of the LLT1-CD161 axis.

The interplay between the airway epithelium and tissue macrophages during the SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The first line of antiviral immune response in the lungs is secured by the innate immunity. Several cell types take part in this process, but airway macrophages (AMs) are among the most relevant ones. The AMs can phagocyte infected cells and activate the immune response through antigen presentation and cytokine release. However, the precise role of macrophages in the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection is still largely unknown. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the role of AMs during the SARS-CoV-2 infection using a co-culture of fully differentiated primary human airway epithelium (HAE) and human monocyte-derived macrophages (hMDMs). Our results confirmed abortive SARS-CoV-2 infection in hMDMs, and their inability to transfer the virus to epithelial cells. However, we demonstrated a striking delay in viral replication in the HAEs when hMDMs were added apically after the epithelial infection, but not when added before the inoculation or on the basolateral side of the culture. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 inhibition by hMDMs seems to be driven by cell-to-cell contact and not by cytokine production. Together, our results show, for the first time, that the recruitment of macrophages may play an important role during the SARS-CoV-2 infection, limiting the virus replication and its spread.

Mild and Asymptomatic COVID-19 Convalescents Present Long-Term Endotype of Immunosuppression Associated With Neutrophil Subsets Possessing Regulatory Functions.

The SARS-CoV-2 infection [coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)] is associated with severe lymphopenia and impaired immune response, including expansion of myeloid cells with regulatory functions, e.g., so-called low-density neutrophils, containing granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (LDNs/PMN-MDSCs). These cells have been described in both infections and cancer and are known for their immunosuppressive activity. In the case of COVID-19, long-term complications have been frequently observed (long-COVID). In this context, we aimed to investigate the immune response of COVID-19 convalescents after a mild or asymptomatic course of disease. We enrolled 13 convalescents who underwent a mild or asymptomatic infection with SARS-CoV-2, confirmed by a positive result of the PCR test, and 13 healthy donors without SARS-CoV-2 infection in the past. Whole blood was used for T-cell subpopulation and LDNs/PMN-MDSCs analysis. LDNs/PMN-MDSCs and normal density neutrophils (NDNs) were sorted out by FACS and used for T-cell proliferation assay with autologous T cells activated with anti-CD3 mAb. Serum samples were used for the detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing IgG and GM-CSF concentration. Our results showed that in convalescents, even 3 months after infection, an elevated level of LDNs/PMN-MDSCs is still maintained in the blood, which correlates negatively with the level of CD8+ and double-negative T cells. Moreover, LDNs/PMN-MDSCs and NDNs showed a tendency for affecting the production of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 neutralizing antibodies. Surprisingly, our data showed that in addition to LDNs/PMN-MDSCs, NDNs from convalescents also inhibit proliferation of autologous T cells. Additionally, in the convalescent sera, we detected significantly higher concentrations of GM-CSF, indicating the role of emergency granulopoiesis. We conclude that in mild or asymptomatic COVID-19 convalescents, the neutrophil dysfunction, including propagation of PD-L1-positive LDNs/PMN-MDSCs and NDNs, is responsible for long-term endotype of immunosuppression.